Accuracy of initial diagnostic impressions of autism in toddlers and behaviors that inform these impressions.

Clinicians form initial impressions about a child's diagnosis based on behavioral features, but research has not yet identified specific behaviors to guide initial diagnostic impressions. Participants were toddlers (N = 55, mean age 22.9 months) from a multi-site early detection study, referred for concern for ASD due to screening or parent/provider concern. Within 5 min of meeting a child, clinicians noted ASD or non-ASD impression, confidence in impression, and behaviors that informed their impression. These clinicians also determined final diagnoses for each child. When a child's final diagnosis was ASD (n = 35), senior clinicians formed an initial impression of ASD in 22 cases (63%) but missed 13 cases (37%). When final diagnosis was non-ASD (n = 20), senior clinicians made an initial impression of non-ASD in all cases (100%). Results were similar among junior clinicians. Senior and junior clinicians used the same behaviors to form accurate impressions of ASD and non-ASD: social reciprocity, nonverbal communication, and eye contact. Senior clinicians additionally used focus of attention when forming accurate impressions of ASD and non-ASD; junior clinicians used this behavior only when forming accurate non-ASD impressions. Clinicians' initial impressions of ASD are very likely to be consistent with final diagnoses, but initial impressions of non-ASD need follow-up. Toddlers who show all four atypical behaviors (social reciprocity, nonverbal communication, eye contact, and focus of attention) might receive expedited ASD diagnoses. However, presence of apparently typical behaviors should not rule out ASD; for some children a longer evaluation is necessary to allow for more opportunities to observe subtle social behavior.

Childhood Maltreatment History and Borderline Personality Symptoms: The Role of Mentalization Difficulties Among Vulnerable Women.

Mentalization difficulties may be one reason why individuals who experienced childhood maltreatment (CM) are at increased risk for borderline personality (BP) symptoms. The goal of this study was to identify specific aspects of mentalization associated with CM and determine their role in the short-term course of BP symptoms. A total of 253 mothers with a previous mental health diagnosis completed online surveys at three times over 9 months. A cross-lag panel model was tested to estimate reciprocal effects between mentalization measures and BP symptoms and indirect effects from CM to mentalization to BP symptoms. At baseline, women with more CM endorsed more difficulty with general mentalization, emotional clarity, and reflecting on childhood experiences. Lack of emotional clarity and disorganized responding about childhood served as indirect paths from CM to subsequent BP symptoms and showed bidirectional associations with BP symptoms over time. Thus, these may be particularly important treatment targets in this population.

Self-report measure of parental reflective functioning: A study of reliability and validity across three samples of varying clinical risk.

The Parental Reflective Functioning Questionnaire (PRFQ) provides an efficient way to measure a parent's capacity to recognize their child's mental states and to understand the relationship between underlying mental states and behavior. To date, limited work evaluates its psychometric properties beyond initial validation studies. Here we examined the reliability and validity of the PRFQ in three samples of varying clinical risk (e.g., community sample, previous mental health diagnosis, substance use disorder diagnosis). Across samples, the majority (e.g., 75%-78%) of mothers identified as White; all mothers were from the USA. We compared the PRFQ to task-based measures of mentalization, the Parent Development Interview (PDI), and measures of the parent-child relationship. The PRFQ was a reliable measure across samples, and it was associated in theoretically consistent ways with task-based measures of mentalization. Parental RF across the PDI and PRFQ were not highly correlated in a sample of mothers with substance use disorders. Existing RF measures may be tapping into a different component of the broader construct of parental reflective functioning (PRF). The PRFQ was further validated by demonstrating relationships with parent-report measures of the parent-child relationship. Taken together, these findings provide additional support for the reliability and validity of the PRFQ.

El Cuestionario del Funcionamiento con Reflexión del Progenitor (PRFQ) aporta una manera eficaz de medir la capacidad del progenitor para reconocer los estados mentales de su niño y comprender la relación entre los estados mentales subyacentes y el comportamiento. A la fecha, un trabajo limitado evalúa sus propiedades sicométricas más allá de los estudios de validación inicial. Aquí examinamos la confiabilidad y validez del PRFQ en tres grupos muestra de riesgo clínico variado (v.g. grupo comunitario, previa diagnosis de salud mental, diagnosis de trastorno por uso de sustancias). A través de los grupos muestra, la mayoría (v.g., 75-78%) de las madres se identifican como blancas; todas las madres eran de los Estados Unidos. Comparamos el PRFQ con medidas de mentalización basadas en tareas, la Entrevista del Desarrollo del Progenitor (PDI), y medidas de la relación progenitor-niño. El PRFQ fue una medida confiable a lo largo de los grupos muestra, y se asoció de maneras teoréticamente consistentes con las medidas de mentalización basadas en tareas. El funcionamiento con reflexión del progenitor a lo largo del PDI y PRFQ no se correlacionaron altamente en un grupo muestra de madres con trastornos de uso de sustancias. Las medidas del funcionamiento con reflexión existentes pudieran sacar provecho de un componente diferente de la más amplia edificación del funcionamiento con reflexión del progenitor. Se validó además el PRFQ por medio de demostrar las relaciones con las medidas auto reportadas por el progenitor de la relación progenitor-niño. Tomados en conjunto, estos resultados aportan un apoyo adicional para la confiabilidad y validez del PRFQ.

Le Questionnaire de Fonctionnement de Réflexion Parental (QFRP) offre une manière efficace de mesurer la capacité d'un parent à reconnaître les états mentaux de leur enfant et de comprendre la relation entre les états mentaux sous-jacents et le comportement. Jusqu'à présent peu d'études ont évalué ses propriétés psychométriques au-delà des études initiales de validation. Nous examinons ici la fiabilité et la validité du QFRP chez trois échantillons de risque clinique varié (soit un échantillon communautaire, un diagnostic de santé mentale précédent, un diagnostic de trouble lié à l'usage d'une substance). Au travers des échantillons la majorité (c'est-à-dire 75-78%) des mères se sont identifiées comme étant blanches et toutes les mères étaient américaines (des USA). Nous avons comparé le QFRP à des mesures de mentalisation faites à partir d'une tâche, à l'Entretien de Développement du Parent (en anglais Parent Development Interview, soit PDI), et à des mesures de la relation parent-enfant. Le QFRP s'est avéré être une mesure fiable au travers des échantillons et était lié de manières théoriquement cohérentes à des mesures de mentalisation (basées sur des tâches). Le FR parental au travers du PDI et le QFRP n'étaient pas fortement liés chez un échantillon de mères avec un trouble lié à l'usage d'une substance. Il est possible que les mesures FR qui existent puisent dans un composant différent de la structure plus large du fonctionnement de réflexion parental, Le QFRP a été en outre validé par la démonstration de la relation entre les mesures rapportées par les parents de la relation parent-enfant. Pris dans l'ensemble ces résultats offrent un soutien supplémentaire pour la fiabilité et la validité du QFRP.

U.S. mothers' appraisals of the race-related events of 2020: Implications for the course of maternal posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms.

For parents of color, publicized racial violence can heighten concerns about their children's safety. The goal of this study was to test whether this form of race-related stress exacerbates maternal posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms over a 4-month period in families of color. Participants included 262 U.S. mothers with a lifetime mental health diagnosis (67.6% non-Hispanic White, 15.6% African-American/Black, 16.8% other family of color). Mothers completed online surveys and open-ended questions, including appraisals of the meaning of the 2020 race-related events (i.e., George Floyd's death, subsequent protests) in relation to their children's future. Open-ended responses were quantified using LIWC15 text analysis for emotion word frequency and thematic coding for perceived implications. In ANCOVA, there were significant racial group differences in appraisals, ds = 0.09-0.57. The responses from mothers of Black children included fewer positive and more negative emotion words than mothers of White children; they also included more perceived negative implications than all other mothers but did not vary on perceived positive implications. In regression analyses, there were significant moderating effects of race/ethnicity in the association between appraisals and PTSD symptom course such that negative appraisals predicted a subsequent increase in PTSD symptoms only for mothers of Black children, ßs = .26-.37. Variations in event appraisals were unrelated to PTSD symptom course for other mothers. These findings provide longitudinal support for the link between vicarious racism exposure and PTSD symptoms and highlight one potential form of racism-related stress for parents of Black children.

An Australian Sugary-sweetened Beverage Levy: Why, What and How?

Sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) are associated with overweight/obesity and linked to chronic diseases. A levy or tax on SSBs has been introduced in many jurisdictions globally as a way to lower sugar consumption and/or reformulate lower sugar levels in order to address increasing rates of overweight and obesity. In this article we describe the various approaches to SSB taxation in these jurisdictions. We then explore the legal and policy landscape relevant to the introduction of an SSB levy in Australia. We argue that there is a mandate for the Australian government to introduce such a tax given the clear evidence that consumption, and therefore the adverse associated health outcomes, have a disproportionate impact upon those from lower socio-economic communities. We ultimately recommend that the tax take the form of an excise which focuses on changing industry practice, based on the success achieved by the United Kingdom tax.

The influence of ethnic-racial identity and discrimination on mental health treatment attitudes among college students.

Objective: While understanding racial/ethnic disparities in mental health services use is a growing priority in colleges and universities, little is known the attitudes that may contribute to these disparities. Methods: This study investigates the relationship between clinic diversity, ethnic-racial identity, discrimination, and treatment attitudes. College students n = 250 (Asian 21%, Black 11%, Latinx 23%, and White 45%) participated in an online experimental task rating hypothetical clinic websites that varied by clinician diversity and completed a series of self-report questionnaires. Results: Clinician diversity did not influence treatment attitudes, but discrimination and ethnic-racial identity were significantly related to treatment attitudes. Additionally, the relationship between public regard and treatment attitudes was moderated by race/ethnicity. Conclusions: By focusing on treatment attitudes rather than behaviors, this study addresses potential areas of intervention to address racial/ethnic disparities in college mental health.

Symptoms of autism spectrum disorder and developmental delay in children with low mental age.

Objective: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in very young children with significant cognitive impairment is difficult to diagnose, depriving them of the earliest opportunities for autism-specific intervention. This study delineated specific symptoms in this group, compared to symptoms in children with Global Developmental Delay (GDD) and in ASD with milder developmental delays.Method: Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule, 2nd Edition, Toddler Module revealed symptoms in three groups of toddlers, with mean ages of 17-20 months: (1) ASD and cognitive/language functioning below the 12-month level (ASD-MA < 12 mos; n = 28), (2) GDD (n = 27), and (3) ASD and cognitive/language functioning at or above the 12-month level (ASD-MA ≥ 12 mos; n = 29). Logistic regression models were fit to control for developmental level. Results: Items in all domains (social interaction, communication, repetitive movements) discriminated ASD-MA < 12 mos from GDD. The two ASD groups, matched for age but differing on developmental level, showed strikingly similar ASD symptomatology. Conclusion: ADOS-2 symptoms differentiated ASD-MA < 12 mos from GDD, after controlling for cognitive impairment. Symptoms in the two ASD groups were minimally related to developmental level. The ADOS-2 Toddler Module successfully captured ASD symptomatology even in children whose developmental level was below the recommended ADOS-2 cutoff of 12 months, which may increase their access to early ASD-specific intervention.

Understanding Children's Emotions: Differences in Mothers With a History of Childhood Maltreatment.

Experiencing maltreatment in childhood can have a lasting impact on how individuals identify and understand emotions in others. Research in this area has not examined parents' understanding of children's emotions, although emotion processing deficits may be one mechanism linking childhood maltreatment to subsequent parenting problems. In a matched case-control design, we test whether mothers with (n = 50) and without (n = 96) childhood maltreatment differ in their understanding of children's emotions on self-report measures and computer-based tasks. Compared to the control group, mothers who experienced maltreatment labeled more children with sad or angry emotions when given limited facial information and made different interpersonal inferences about children they labeled angry. They also reported more subjective difficulty interpreting emotions in unknown children and their own child. Results provide further evidence of emotion processing biases associated with childhood maltreatment. Interventions aimed at improving parental emotion understanding and mentalization may be particularly useful for mothers with a history of childhood maltreatment.

The Role of Trauma in Mothers' COVID-19 Vaccine Beliefs and Intentions.

OBJECTIVE: Research on COVID-19 vaccine beliefs has focused primarily on adults' intentions to vaccinate themselves; however, many parents will also face decisions about vaccinating their children. In this study, we examine how maternal posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and trauma history relate to mothers' beliefs and intentions about the COVID-19 vaccine for themselves and their children. METHODS: A total of 240 mothers with a mental health history participating in a parenting study answered online survey questions via Prolific. Questions assessed: (a) trauma indictors (past diagnosis, current symptoms, and lifetime exposure to events); (b) vaccine measures (intentions for self and child, COVID-19 vaccine confidence, general vaccine perceived safety, reasoning about vaccine intentions, sources of influence on intentions); and (c) possible explanatory variables (institutional distrust, negative worldviews). ANCOVAs and regression analyses were used. RESULTS: When compared with mothers with other mental health diagnoses, mothers with a PTSD history had significantly less confidence in the COVID-19 vaccine and less intent to get the vaccine for themselves or their child. These effects were explained by greater institutional distrust (i.e., significant indirect effects). Mothers with a previous PTSD diagnosis also expressed different reasons for vaccine hesitancy (e.g., less belief in science) and ascribed less influence to healthcare and governmental sources in vaccine decision-making. CONCLUSION: Findings highlight the potential utility of a trauma-informed approach in efforts to reduce COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy. For mothers with a history of PTSD, addressing institutional distrust, including towards the healthcare industry, may be an important element to consider in the content, delivery, and mode of vaccine messaging.

Emotion socialization in mothers who experienced maltreatment: Mentalizing the past may help the present.

Adults who experienced childhood maltreatment (CM) are at increased risk for parenting problems. Mentalization capacity may disrupt intergenerational patterns of problematic parenting among mothers with a CM history. In this study, we examine: (a) parents' use of negative emotion socialization practices as one path of intergenerational transmission of risk in mothers with CM and (b) whether mothers' ability to mentalize about the emotion socialization behaviors of attachment figures diminishes intergenerational similarity in negative emotion socialization practices. Mentalization was operationalized as the frequency of cognitive processing words in mothers' narrative responses to questions about how and why attachment figures responded to their negative emotions during childhood. Participants included 154 mothers with and without a self-reported CM history in a case-control design, matched on child age, gender, maternal education, and race/ethnicity. Mothers with CM recollected more unsupportive responses to their negative emotions during childhood, which in turn predicted using more punishing, ignoring, and magnifying responses toward their own child's negative emotions (i.e., a significant indirect effect). However, greater cognitive processing language when describing the emotional climate of childhood diminished this pathway (i.e., a significant moderated effect). Among mothers who recollected unsupportive responses to emotions from their parents, those whose narratives included more cognitive processing words did not act in similar ways toward their own child whereas those who used fewer cognitive processing words did. These preliminary findings support the growing body of research suggesting that the quality of mentalization can be a protective factor among adults who experienced childhood maltreatment. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Maternal Depression and Child Externalizing Behaviors: The Role of Attachment Across Development in Low-income Families.

Early attachment quality may be a lasting source of vulnerability or protection in children's development. In this study, we examine whether attachment quality at age three moderates the impact of subsequent exposure to maternal depression (at age five or nine) on children's externalizing symptoms at age nine. The sample included 1,917 low-income families (mean child age = 9.28; 55.9% African-American, 20.6% White, 20.0% Latina, 3.5% Other) from the Fragile Families and Child Well Being Study. At age three, 23.9% of children were categorized as insecurely attached based on maternal report of their child's attachment behaviors. At age nine, mothers, teachers, and children reported on the child's externalizing behaviors. Mothers also completed measures of maternal depression at child age three, five, and nine. Controlling for age three externalizing (by maternal report) and age three maternal depression as well as various demographic factors, attachment quality interacted with exposure to subsequent maternal depression in predicting externalizing behaviors at age nine. Interaction effects were evident in mother, teacher, and child report of externalizing. Across all three reporters, exposure to maternal depression was associated with greater externalizing behaviors in children who exhibited insecure attachment behaviors at age three. These findings highlight the potential benefit of interventions to improve early parent-child relationships for families at elevated risk because of maternal mental health.

Does your child need therapy? Maternal reflective functioning and perceived need for and use of child mental health treatment.

Interventions to improve reflective functioning (RF) are being delivered to parents of children with mental health needs, yet whether this population differs in RF is unknown. We examine if mothers with varying levels of child mental health (CMH) treatment need and use differ in RF in a community sample of 212 mothers. Participants completed measures of general RF, parental RF, children's symptoms, perceived treatment need, treatment utilization, and perceptions of treatment efficacy at baseline and one year later. Low maternal RF was associated with elevated child symptoms, and a greater perceived need for treatment. Among mothers who believed their child needed services, those with low general RF were less likely to be utilizing services at baseline and in the next year. Mothers with lower parental RF also believed that CMH treatment was less effective. Findings support the use of RF-based interventions with parents identified because of their child's mental health.

Body surveillance as a prospective risk factor for depressive symptoms in low-income adolescent girls from the United States.

Adolescent girls who engage in frequent self-objectification often report a greater number of depressive symptoms. Although concurrent associations between self-objectification and depression are well-documented, it is less clear if objectification contributes to the course of symptoms. The current study examined: (a) whether body surveillance is prospectively related to depressive symptoms over a 1-month period in a sample of 150 low-income adolescent girls in the United States, and; (b) whether receiving certain types of weight-relevant information (i.e., learning one's weight is much higher than estimated) moderates this association. Heightened body surveillance at baseline predicted greater symptom severity one month later, but the strength of this relationship depended on what type of weight information girls received. Among girls high in body surveillance, those who found out their actual weight was much higher than they estimated subsequently reported more severe depressive symptoms; those who learned their actual weight was consistent or lower than they estimated reported fewer depressive symptoms. For girls low in body surveillance, weight-relevant information was not significantly related to the subsequent severity of depressive symptoms. Findings highlight the potential utility of assessing and addressing heightened body surveillance in depression interventions for adolescent girls.

Mother-Daughter Sexual Communication: Differences by Maternal Sexual Victimization History.

Women who experience childhood sexual victimization (CSV) report more problems with sexuality and with parenting during adulthood. Consequently, mothers with a CSV history may have particular difficulty with parent-child sexual communication. We examine this possibility in 184 diverse, low-income mother-adolescent daughter dyads. Mothers and daughters reported on the frequency, tone, and comfort of their sexual communication. Using dyadic approaches to analyses, we tested whether mothers' and daughters' reports, and their level of agreement, differ by maternal CSV history. In dyads with maternal CSV, daughters reported more frequent communication in which they felt less embarrassed, and they perceived their mothers as less embarrassed. Mothers with a CSV history were also more accurate in judging how their daughters feel during sexual communication. Although CSV is associated with many negative outcomes, our results suggest mothers with CSV may approach mother-daughter sexual communication in ways that could reduce sexual risk in offspring.

Depression as a moderator in the relation between mothers' and daughters' ethnic identity commitment.

OBJECTIVES: This study examined whether maternal depressive symptoms moderated the association between mothers' and daughters' ethnic identity commitment. METHOD: The sample included 165 (69% Latina, 26% African American/Black, and 5% Asian, Native American, or Middle Eastern) mother-adolescent daughter dyads. Mothers' self-reported on their ethnic identity commitment and depressive symptoms, and adolescent daughters self-reported on their ethnic identity commitment. RESULTS: After controlling for adolescent age and language, results revealed no association between mothers' and daughters' ethnic identity commitment. However, a 2-way interaction was found. Mothers' and daughters' ethnic identity commitment were positively related when mothers reported low depressive symptoms, and negatively related when mothers reported high depressive symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Family clinicians who work to strengthen positive self-concepts in girls of color should consider promoting their mothers' attachment to their ethnic group and treating existing maternal depressive symptoms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

My strong, Black daughter: Racial/ethnic differences in the attributes mothers value for their daughters.

OBJECTIVES: The Strong Black Woman (SBW) ideal, which emphasizes self-reliance and strength, is considered an influential cultural image for many Black women. Research on how the SBW ideal may be reflected in maternal socialization is largely theoretical or qualitative. METHODS: Guided by cultural models of parenting, we tested for racial/ethnic differences in the importance and meaning of SBW-related attributes among 194 low-income, Black (22%), White (20%), and Latina (57%) families. Mothers (M = 41.6 years) and daughters (M = 15.4 years) completed semistructured interviews, q-sort tasks, and self-report measures. Group differences were examined with analysis of covariance, logistic regression, and multigroup path models. RESULTS: Black adolescents were not described by mothers or adolescents as possessing more SBW-related attributes (e.g., strong-willed, independent, assertive) compared to adolescents of other racial/ethnic groups; however, tests of moderation indicate group differences in how mothers perceived these attributes. Black adolescents with high SBW-related attributes were viewed by their mothers as showing leadership, whereas White and Latina adolescents with these attributes were viewed by mothers as having externalizing problems. Black mothers also rated these attributes as more important for young adult women to possess compared to other mothers. Finally, Black mothers described self-reliance as the critical developmental task for their daughter more than White and Latina mothers. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest attributes consistent with the SBW ideal are valued by Black mothers more than Latina and White mothers from similar communities and provide empirical support about the potential importance of the SBW ideal in how Black mothers raise their daughters. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

A two-way street: Mothers' and adolescent daughters' depression and PTSD symptoms jointly predict dyadic behaviors.

Dyadic interactions may be affected by the mental health of either partner; however, both partners' symptoms are typically not considered simultaneously in observational studies of parent-child relationships. Using the actor-partner interdependence model (APIM), we examine how depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in mothers and adolescent daughters predict their own and each other's relational behaviors (warmth, hostility, communication) during interactions, and whether partners' relational behaviors predict changes in symptoms 1 month later. Participants include 150 mother (mean age = 41.6) and daughter (mean age = 15.1) dyads from diverse (57% Latina; 23% Black, 20% White), low-income families. Mothers and daughters reported on their symptoms and participated in a videotaped interaction task. A subset completed a follow-up interview 1 month later. For both depression and PTSD, mothers' and daughters' symptoms predicted their own relational behaviors (actor effects). In contrast, partner effects varied by symptom type and family role. Adolescents' depressive symptoms predicted how their mothers acted toward them, beyond maternal symptoms (an additive partner effect); the converse was not true. Mother and daughter PTSD symptoms interactively predicted daughters' relational behaviors (an Actor × Partner interaction), with buffering or exacerbating effects based on dyad symptom similarity. PTSD symptoms had unique effects beyond depression. In longitudinal analysis, mothers' relational behaviors predicted changes in adolescents' depressive symptoms, but adolescent behaviors were unrelated to subsequent maternal symptoms. Findings suggest that depression and PTSD symptoms may affect family relationships differently, and highlight the importance of considering both members' symptoms during interactions. Implications for dyadic interventions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Gender Differences in Anxiety Trajectories from Middle to Late Adolescence.

Although developmental trajectories of anxiety symptomatology have begun to be explored, most research has focused on total anxiety symptom scores during childhood and early adolescence, using racially/ethnically homogenous samples. Understanding the heterogeneous courses of anxiety disorder symptoms during middle to late adolescence has the potential to clarify developmental risk models of anxiety and to inform prevention programs. Therefore, this study specifically examined gender differences in developmental trajectories of anxiety disorder symptoms (generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and social anxiety disorder) from middle to late adolescence in a diverse community sample (N = 1000; 57 % female; 65 % White), assessed annually over 2 years. Latent growth curve modeling revealed that girls exhibited a slight linear decrease in generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and social anxiety disorder symptoms, whereas boys exhibited a stable course. These models suggested that one trajectory was appropriate for panic disorder symptoms in both girls and boys. Growth mixture models indicated the presence of four latent generalized anxiety disorder symptom trajectory classes: low increasing, moderate decreasing slightly, high decreasing, and very high decreasing rapidly. Growth mixture models also suggested the presence of five latent social anxiety disorder symptom trajectory classes: a low stable trajectory class and four classes that were qualitatively similar to the latent generalized anxiety disorder trajectories. For both generalized anxiety disorder and social anxiety disorder symptoms, girls were significantly more likely than boys to be in trajectory classes characterized by moderate or high initial symptoms that subsequently decreased over time. These findings provide novel information regarding the developmental course of anxiety disorder symptoms in adolescents.

Depressive Symptoms in Mothers and Daughters: Attachment Style Moderates Reporter Agreement.

Parents and adolescents show only modest agreement when reporting on depressive symptoms. Drawing from attachment theory and previous research on informant discrepancies, we tested hypotheses about how adolescent attachment style may impact reporting agreement in a sample of 184 low-income mother-adolescent daughter dyads (adolescent mean age = 15.4 (SD = 1.05), maternal mean age = 41.4 (SD = 7.60); 58 % Latina, 26 % African-American/Black, 16 % as non-Hispanic, White). Mothers and adolescents reported on their own and each others' depressive symptoms and adolescents reported on attachment style. Using a moderated Actor Partner Interdependence Model (APIM) to calculate reporter bias and accuracy estimates, we tested whether attachment style moderated maternal and adolescent accuracy in theoretically consistent ways. Mothers and adolescents showed similar levels of accuracy and bias when reporting on each other. Consistent with hypotheses, we found that adolescents who reported high levels of preoccupation were less accurate when reporting on their mothers because they tended to observe symptoms that their mothers did not endorse. Conversely, mothers were the most accurate in these dyads, potentially because preoccupied adolescents tend to elevate displays of emotional distress. Reporting accuracy was not affected by a dismissive style. These results add to literature indicating that parent-child reporting discrepancies often reflect meaningful information about relationships, and highlight the need to consider different sources of reporting bias and accuracy in assessment and treatment.

Imagining Her Future: Diversity in Mothers' Socialization Goals for Their Adolescent Daughters.

According to developmental niche theory, members of different cultural and ethnic groups often have distinct ideas about what children need to become well-adapted adults. These beliefs are reflected in parents' long-term socialization goals for their children. In this study, we test whether specific themes that have been deemed important in literature on diverse families in the United States (e.g., Strong Black Woman [SBW], marianismo, familismo) are evident in mothers' long-term socialization goals. Participants included 192 mothers of teenage daughters from a low-income city in the United States (58% Latina, 22% African American, and 20% European American [EA]/White). Socialization goals were assessed through a q-sort task on important traits for a woman to possess and content analysis of open-ended responses about what values mothers hoped they would transmit to their daughters as they become adults. Results from ANCOVAs and logistic regression indicate significant racial/ethnic differences on both tasks consistent with hypotheses. On the q-sort task, African American mothers put more importance on women possessing traits such as independence than mothers from other racial/ethnic groups. Similarly, they were more likely to emphasize self-confidence and strength in what they hoped to transmit to their daughters. Contrary to expectation, Latina mothers did not emphasize social traits on the q-sort; however, in open-ended responses, they were more likely to focus on the importance of motherhood, one aspect of marianismo and familismo. Overall, results suggest that these mothers' long-term socialization goals incorporate culturally relevant values considered important for African American and Latino families.